2.06 Educational participation and attainment of adults

Key Messages

Why is it important?

Education is a well-recognised determinant of health and wellbeing, and continued learning as an adult is a powerful tool for improving health, employment, and economic outcomes. Higher educational attainment also supports better health literacy, enabling individuals to make informed choices about their health and wellbeing. However, there are barriers to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (First Nations) people being able to access and fully achieve higher education aspirations. A range of policies and programs have been established to improve these pathways. Closing the Gap reinforces this priority through Target 6: increasing the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 25–34 with a tertiary qualification (Certificate III and above) to 70% by 2031, and Target 7: increasing the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth (15–24) engaged in employment, education, or training to 67% by 2031. Achieving these targets is critical to reducing social and health inequities and fostering long-term economic participation.

Data findings

• In 2021, 48% (182,600) of First Nations people aged 20–64 had either completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above or were studying for a non-school qualification at any level. This is an increase from 42% in 2016 and 35% in 2011. The gap between First Nations people and non-Indigenous Australians decreased slightly from a rate difference of 26 percentage points in 2011 to 23 percentage points in 2021.

• In 2022–23, First Nations people aged 18–64 who had a non-school qualification were more likely to be employed (73%) than those without a non-school qualification (41%).

• Of First Nations people aged 18–24, nearly 1 in 4 (24%) were currently studying in 2021 – 11% were attending university or other higher education, 8.8% were attending vocational education and training, 3.2% were attending secondary school, and 1.0% were attending other educational institutions.

• The proportion of First Nations adults aged 18 and over attending an educational institution in 2021 decreased with increasing remoteness of usual residence – from 14% in Major cities to 2.8% in Very remote areas. In non-remote areas, 12% of First Nations adults were currently studying, compared with 3.5% in remote areas.

• Just under one-quarter (22%) of First Nations people aged 18 and over in the 2022–23 NATSIHS had wanted to study in the past 12 months, but for various reasons had not. Of those who wanted to study but did not, 1 in 4 (25%) cited financial reasons, and just under 1 in 5 (19%) cited having no time to study.

• The Australian Capital Territory had the highest proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over who completed Year 12 or equivalent (60%) and the Northern Territory had the lowest (26%).

• Over the 3 Censuses from 2011 to 2021, the proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over who had completed Year 12 or equivalent as their highest level of school increased from 29% in 2011, to 35% in 2016 and to 40% in 2021. The proportion also increased for non-Indigenous Australians (from 55% in 2011 to 64% in 2021), with minimal change in the rate difference between the two population groups (decrease from 26 to 24 percentage points) and rate ratio (increase from 0.5 to 0.6).

• The number of First Nations students (of any age) commencing in higher education has increased steadily, from 6,168 students in 2015 to 9,290 students in 2024. The number of First Nations students commencing in higher education as a proportion of all domestic students rose from 1.7% in 2015 to 2.4% in 2024.

• The rate at which First Nations people aged 20–64 completed higher education courses rose from 48 per 10,000 in 2016 to 77 per 10,000 in 2024.

• From 2016 to 2024, the proportion of First Nations people aged 15 and over completing government funded VET qualifications decreased from 3.6% to 3.2%. The proportion also decreased among non-Indigenous Australians, from 1.8% of those aged 15 and over in 2016, to 1.5% in 2024.

• Looking at non-school qualifications, in 2021, 48% of First Nations people aged 20–64 reported they either completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above or were studying for a non-school qualification at any level – compared with 71% for non-Indigenous Australians. This gap was due to lower rates of attainment at Bachelor Degree and above, with 10% of First Nations people aged 20–64 having a Bachelor Degree or above, compared with 35% of non-Indigenous adults.

• In 2024, 83% of First Nations undergraduate alumni were employed on a full-time basis, an increase of 8 percentage points from 75% in 2016. The proportion of First Nations undergraduate alumni who were employed in any manner was 89% in 2024, increasing from 86% in 2016. For First Nations postgraduate coursework alumni, 92% were in full-time employment and 95% were employed in any manner.

• In 2024, First Nations undergraduate and postgraduate alumni were more likely to be in full-time employment than non-Indigenous undergraduate and postgraduate alumni (83% and 92% compared with 74% and 88%, respectively).

• In 2024, the median salary for non-Indigenous undergraduate alumni was $2,000 less than the median First Nations undergraduate alumni salary ($75,000 compared with $77,000, respectively).

Research and evaluation findings

• Research has found that if First Nations and non-Indigenous students reach the same level of academic achievement by the time they are 15, there is no significant difference in subsequent educational outcomes, such as completing Year 12 and participating in university or vocational education and training.

• Limited opportunities to participate in higher education on Country requires many First Nations students wishing to further their education to relocate. A relatively high proportion of First Nations university students come from regional and remote areas, and housing and relocation costs are often an additional burden. Students who relocate may experience further challenges such as isolation from being away from their families and communities.

• Adult learning can indirectly benefit physical and mental health by improving social capital and connectedness, health behaviour, skills and employment outcomes. There is evidence that participation in adult education can have a greater effect on health and social outcomes for people in more disadvantaged groups. Longitudinal studies show that adults who participate in post-school learning engage in healthier behaviours, including increased amounts of physical exercise, reduced alcohol consumption and smoking cessation, and improved social and emotional wellbeing.

Implications

Supporting young First Nations people through secondary school and into post-school education is critical for improving employment, health, and social outcomes. Initiatives that reduce barriers to higher education such as guaranteed Commonwealth supported places for regional and remote First Nations students have increased enrolment and graduation rates, while programs like CareerTrackers provide paid internships and leadership training, achieving an 89% graduation rate compared to 47% nationally. Broader reforms, including the National Skills Agreement and its National Skills Taxonomy, aim to create clearer pathways between education and employment. Expanding the role of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Community-Controlled Registered Training Organisations (ACCRTOs) and delivering education and training on Country remain key opportunities to strengthen culturally grounded, community-driven pathways.

Why is it important?

Education is well recognised as a key determinant of health and continued learning as an adult is regarded as a powerful tool for achieving better health, education and economic outcomes (Littleton and Reader 2022; Raghupathi and Raghupathi 2020). As educational attainment increases, the employment gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (First Nations) people and non-Indigenous Australians narrows, highlighting the transformative potential of education. While university education may not align with everyone’s aspirations, pursuing post-school qualifications significantly enhances opportunities for employment and socioeconomic advancement. Compared to those entering the workforce directly from school, First Nations people with a post-school qualification are more likely to secure employment, and the transition from education to work is smoother for Vocational Education and Training (VET) and university graduates, with higher salary outcomes (Jobs and Skills Australia 2024b; Social Research Centre n.d.).

First Nations graduates in professional roles serve as inspirational role models, demonstrating potential career pathways and encouraging future generations to pursue higher education and professional careers. This increased representation in professional fields positively influences First Nations participation in the mainstream economy (Anderson 2011). Health outcomes are also enhanced by the ability to access and utilise a wide range of materials and resources to build health knowledge and support informed decision-making (Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care 2013). Adult learning fosters social capital and connectedness, and health behaviours, contributing to improved physical and mental health outcomes. Participation in adult education has a particularly profound impact on health and social outcomes for disadvantaged groups (Schuller 2017; University College London Institute of Health Equity 2014). 

Despite the clear benefits of higher education, financial pressures and rising living costs continue to influence student decisions. Data from the Department of Education indicates that many students may opt to defer or drop out of their studies due to these pressures and the need for income. However, First Nations student enrolments have not mirrored this trend; they have shown a steady increase over time, including a 7% rise from 2023 to 2024. This growth reflects long-term efforts to improve access rather than short-term labour market fluctuations (Department of Education 2025).

While participation is improving, First Nations students still face significant barriers to attaining a university education in Australia. These challenges are rooted in structural and interpersonal racism, which leaves them feeling unsafe and unwelcome, and a lack of understanding about historical and systemic discrimination further exacerbates their difficulties. Financial challenges, such as the cost of tuition and living expenses, hinder their access to higher education. Additionally, the absence of culturally appropriate support services, disparities in academic preparedness, and geographical barriers for those from remote areas contribute to higher dropout rates and lower university enrolment among First Nations students (AHRC 2024; DoE 2024).

To address some of these challenges, the National Agreement on Closing the Gap (the National Agreement) was developed in partnership between Australian governments and the Coalition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peak Organisations. It is built around 4 Priority Reforms directly informed by First Nations people. These reforms aim to change how governments work with First Nations people by fostering partnership and shared decision-making, building the Aboriginal community-controlled sector, transforming government organisations, and improving and sharing access to data and information to enable informed decision making by First Nations communities. The National Agreement emphasises the importance of engagement in further education and employment, with specific outcomes and targets to guide policy and monitor progress. These targets aim to reduce social inequalities and promote economic participation. Key targets include:

• Target 6 – By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 25–34 years who have completed a tertiary qualification (Certificate III and above) to 70 per cent.
• Target 7 – By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth (15–24) who are in employment, education or training to 67 per cent.

For the latest data on the Closing the Gap targets, see the Closing the Gap Information Repository.

Currently attending an educational institution

In the 2021 ABS Census of Population and Housing, 10% of First Nations people aged 18 and over reported that they were currently studying at an educational institution (48,200 of 471,000 people whose attendance at an educational institution was stated) (Table D2.06.1).
 
Among First Nations people aged 18–24, 1 in 4 (24%, 23,200) were currently studying, decreasing to 11% (12,700) of those aged 25–34, 7.8% (6,400) of those aged 35–44, and 3.3% (6,000) of those aged 45 and over (Table D2.06.1).

Among First Nations people aged 18–24, 3.2% (3,000) were in secondary school, 11% (10,300) in tertiary university or other higher education, 8.8% (8,500) in tertiary vocational education (including Technical and Further Education (TAFE) and private training providers) and 1.0% (900) were attending other educational institutions (Table D2.06.1, Figure 2.06.1). About three-quarters (76%; 73,300) of First Nations people in this age group reported not attending an educational institution. 

Figure 2.06.1: Proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over currently attending educational institutions, by type of institution and age group, 2021

Source: Table D2.06.1. AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Population and Housing (ABS 2022).

The proportion of First Nations adults who were studying was highest among those living in the Australian Capital Territory, where 19% (1,100) were currently studying, followed by Victoria at 14% (5,500) (Table D2.06.3). 

The proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over currently attending an educational institution decreased with increasing remoteness of usual residence – from 14% (26,900) in Major cities to 2.8% (1,300) in Very remote areas. In non-remote areas combined (Major cities, Inner regional and Outer regional areas), 12% (45,500) of First Nations adults were currently studying, compared with 3.5% (2,600) in remote areas (Remote and Very remote areas combined) (Table D2.06.4).

Highest level of school completed

In the 2021 Census, 40% (188,500) of First Nations people aged 18 and over reported Year 12 or equivalent as their highest level of school completed (Table D2.06.5). Note that ‘equivalent’ qualifications in the context of these data refers to secondary school-based qualifications or equivalents (for example, Year 13 in New Zealand, 6th form in the UK, and Higher School Certificate in Australia). It excludes non-school qualifications and therefore differs to the specifications used for the Closing the Gap target on Year 12 or equivalent attainment – see measure 2.05 Education outcomes for young people for those data.

Across age groups, 57% of First Nations people aged 18–24 reported Year 12 or equivalent as their highest level of school completed in the 2021 Census (55,500 of 97,200, excluding those whose highest year of school completed was not stated). This proportion was lower in older age groups – 48% (54,500) of First Nations adults aged 25–34 had completed Year 12 or equivalent, compared with 42% (34,700) of those aged 35–44, and 24% (43,800) of those aged 45 and over. Among First Nations people aged 18–24, 28% (27,000) had finished school at Year 10 level or below – this proportion was higher in older age groups, increasing to 66% (117,800) of those aged 45 and over (Table D2.06.5, Figure 2.06.2). 

Figure 2.06.2: Highest level of school completed, First Nations people, by age group, 2021

Source: Table D2.06.5. AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Population and Housing (ABS 2022).

In 2021, among First Nations people aged 18 and over, females were more likely than males to have completed Year 12 or equivalent as their highest level of school completion (42% and 37%, respectively). The proportion of First Nations adults who had completed Year 11 as their highest attainment was similar for First Nations females and males (13% and 12% respectively), while the proportion with Year 10 or below was higher for males than females (51% compared with 45%) (Table D2.06.6).

The Australian Capital Territory had the highest proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over who completed Year 12 or equivalent (60%; 3,400) and the Northern Territory had the lowest (26%; 9,800) (Table D2.06.7).

The proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over who had completed Year 12 or equivalent decreased with increasing remoteness, from 47% (93,100) in Major cities to 27% (12,500) in Very remote areas. Overall, 42% (167,800) of First Nations people who lived in non-remote areas (Major cities, Inner regional, and Outer regional combined) had completed Year 12 or equivalent, compared with 28% (20,700) of those in remote areas (Remote and Very remote areas combined) (Table D2.06.8).

Non-school qualifications

Non-school qualifications include Certificate I to Certificate IV, Diploma, Bachelor, Master and Doctoral level qualifications. Non-school qualifications can be completed through higher education or Vocational Education and Training (VET). 

Vocational education and training

Data from the National Centre for Vocational Education Research showed that, in 2024, First Nations people completed 22,669 Vocational Education and Training (VET) sector qualifications:

• 9,345 (41%) at Certificate I/II level
• 9,189 (41%) at Certificate III level
• 4,139 (18%) at Certificate IV level or higher (Table 2.06.15).

In 2024, 58% (13,407) of VET completions among First Nations people were for those aged 15–24. A further 20% (4,603) of VET completions among First Nations people were for people aged 25–34, 12% (2,608) were for those aged 35–44 years, and 10% (2,277) were for those aged 45 and over (Table D2.06.15). 

Among First Nations people aged 15–24, VET completions were predominantly at Certificate I/II or Certificate III levels (6,561 and 5,180 completions in 2024 respectively), with a relatively smaller number at Certificate IV level or higher (1,300). In older age groups, Certificate I/II or Certificate III level completions were also more common than completions at Certificate IV or higher, though the differences were smaller (Table D2.06.15, Figure 2.06.3). 

In 2024, the number of VET completions at Certificate IV level or higher was highest among First Nations people aged 15–24 (1,300 completions), followed by those aged 25–34 (1,284) (Table D2.06.15, Figure 2.06.3).

Figure 2.06.3: Qualifications completed by Indigenous Australians in the VET sector, by age group, 2024

Note: Total includes qualifications for people aged under 15 and people with unknown age (not shown separately in figure).

Source: Table D2.06.15. AIHW analysis of VOCSTATS (NCVER 2025).

Across jurisdictions, the number of VET qualifications completed among First Nations people in 2024 was highest in Queensland (8,416, or 37% of all VET completions among First Nations people), followed by New South Wales (8,045, or 36%), and Western Australia (2,524, or 11%) (Table D2.06.16).

In 2024, 88% of VET completions among First Nations people were for those who lived in non-remote areas (Table D2.06.31).

Certificate III or above

Certificate III is widely used as a threshold for post school qualifications, as it provides a foundational level of training that qualifies people to apply a broad range of skills in varied contexts and undertake skilled work (Australian Qualifications Framework n.d.).

In the 2021 Census of Population and Housing, information was collected on the highest level of non-school qualification among people who had completed a qualification. Information was also collected on whether people were currently studying for a non-school qualification, though not the level of qualification for which they were studying. 

Based on data from the Census of Population and Housing, in 2021:

• 44% of First Nations people aged 20–64 had completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above (167,000 of 380,600)
• 4.1% had not completed a qualification at Certificate III or above but were currently studying for a non-school qualification (at any level) (15,600 of 380,600) (Table D2.06.10). 

Across age groups in 2021, the proportion of First Nations adults who had completed a Certificate III or above, or were studying for a non-school qualification (at any level) was highest among those aged 25–34 and 35–44 (both 52%). In 2021, the proportion of First Nations adults who had completed Bachelor Degree or above was 10% (37,100), with this proportion ranging between 10% and 12% across all age groups except younger adults aged 20–24 (4.4%) (Table D2.06.10, Figure 2.06.4). 

Figure 2.06.4: Non-school qualifications at Certificate III or above and/or currently studying, First Nations people, by age group, 2021

Source: Table D2.06.10. AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Population and Housing (ABS 2022).

The Australian Capital Territory had the highest proportion of First Nations people who had completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above or were studying for a non-school qualification (68%; 3,200) and the Northern Territory had the lowest (23%; 6,800) (Table D2.06.11).

The proportion of First Nations people who had a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above or were studying for a non-school qualification decreased with increasing remoteness, ranging from 57% (92,500) in Major cities to 20% (7,300) in Very remote areas. Overall, about half (53%; 168,300) of First Nations people who lived in non-remote areas (Major cities, Inner regional and Outer regional areas combined) had a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above or were studying for a non-school qualification, compared with about one-quarter (24%; 13,700) of those living in remote areas (Remote and Very remote areas combined) (Table D2.06.12).

Looking at the level of completed non-school qualifications, in 2021:

• the proportion of First Nations people aged 20–64 who had completed a Certificate III to Advanced Diploma ranged from 37% (60,800) in Major cities to 16% (6,100) in Very remote areas
• the proportion of First Nations people aged 20–64 who had completed a Bachelor Degree or above ranged from 14% (22,800) in Major cities to 2.2% (800) in Very remote areas (Table D2.06.12).

Closing the Gap target

Target 6 in the National Agreement on Closing the Gap is to increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 25–34 who have completed a tertiary qualification (Certificate III and above) to 70 per cent by 2031. In 2021, 47% (50,690) of First Nations people aged 25–34 held a non-school qualification of a Certificate III or above, consisting of:

• 1.3% with a Postgraduate Degree
• 1.1% with a Graduate Diploma or Graduate Certificate
• 7.8% with a Bachelor Degree
• 7.4% with an Advanced Diploma or Diploma
• 29.5% with a Certificate III or IV (Productivity Commission 2023).

In this age group, First Nations females were more likely than First Nations males to have completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III level or above (51% compared with 43%) (Productivity Commission 2023).

The Australian Capital Territory had the highest proportion of First Nations people aged 25–34 with a non-school qualification at or above Certificate III (65%; 1,000) and the Northern Territory had the lowest (19%; 1,700) (Table D2.06.36).

The proportion of First Nations people aged 25–34 with a non-school qualification at or above Certificate III ranged from 57% (27,300) in Major cities to 17% (1,800) in Very remote areas (Table D2.06.36).

Higher education

Higher education refers to tertiary study undertaken at universities or other accredited higher education providers after completing Year 12 or equivalent. It includes qualifications such as bachelor degrees, graduate certificates and diplomas, master’s degrees, and doctoral degrees. It does not include vocational education and training (VET) programs like certificates or diplomas delivered by TAFEs or Registered Training Organisations (RTOs).

Based on data from the Higher Education Statistics Collection, in 2024:

• there were 22,659 First Nations students enrolled in higher education courses, making up 2.2% of the higher education student population
• 9,290 First Nations students commenced a higher education course
• 4,293 courses were completed by First Nations students (Table D2.06.24).

In 2024, there were more First Nations females engaged in higher education than First Nations males. Of First Nations higher education students, over twice as many were female (15,820 compared with 6,839 males). There were also twice as many commencing female than male First Nations students (6,459 compared with 2,831, respectively) (Table D2.06.28, Figure 2.06.5). 

Figure 2.06.5: Number of commencing students, current students and course completions, First Nations higher education students, by sex, 2024

Source: Table D2.06.28. AIHW analysis of Department of Education Higher Education Statistics Collection 2025.

The number of higher education course completions by First Nations females was 2.4 times as high as by First Nations males (3,041 compared with 1,252, respectively) (Table D2.06.28, Figure 2.06.5). For non-Indigenous higher education students, there were 1.6 times as many course completions by females (152,266) as by males (92,906) in 2024 (Table D2.06.28).

The top 3 fields of study for First Nations students in 2024 were society and culture (31% or 7,105 students), health (26% or 5,912 students) and education (14% or 3,270 students) (Table D2.06.27). 

The proportion of First Nations higher education students who did not complete their course of study has remained similar between 2014 and 2023 but went down from 2005. In 2023, the higher education attrition rate for First Nations students was 25%, similar to the previous decade. The higher education attrition rate for non-Indigenous students was 15% in 2023, similar to 17% in 2005 (Table D2.06.29).

In 2024, 29% of First Nations higher education students were aged 20–24, 27% were aged 25–34 and 24% were aged 35 and over, compared with 36%, 20% and 19% of non-Indigenous students, respectively. A similar age difference was also seen in course completions (Table D2.06.28, Figure 2.06.6). 

Figure 2.06.6: Proportion of current higher education students and course completions in selected age ranges, by Indigenous status, 2024

Source: Table D2.06.28. AIHW analysis of Department of Education Higher Education Statistics Collection 2025.

Benefits of attainment

Data from the 2022–23 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey (NATSIHS) showed that First Nations people aged 18–64 who had a non-school qualification were more likely to be employed (73%) than those without a non-school qualification (41%) (Table D2.06.33).

The Graduate Outcomes Survey (GOS) is completed by graduates of Australian higher education institutions in the 6 months after completing their studies, and measures labour market outcomes, course satisfaction and graduate salaries (Social Research Centre 2025). The following analysis is based on undergraduate and postgraduate coursework alumni (those who have graduated from their higher education course).

In 2024, 83% of First Nations undergraduate alumni were employed on a full-time basis, an increase of 8 percentage points from 75% in 2016. The proportion of First Nations undergraduate alumni who were employed in any manner was 89% in 2024, increasing from 86% in 2016. For First Nations postgraduate coursework alumni, 92% were in full-time employment and 95% were employed in any manner. First Nations undergraduate and postgraduate alumni were more likely to be in full-time employment than non-Indigenous undergraduate and postgraduate alumni (83% and 92% compared with 74% and 88%, respectively) (Social Research Centre 2016, 2025).

For First Nations undergraduate alumni who were employed on a full-time basis, the median annual salary was $77,000 in 2024, having increased by $17,800 since 2016 ($59,200). First Nations undergraduate male alumni had a higher median annual full-time salary than female alumni ($82,100 compared with $75,000, respectively). A similar pay disparity between First Nations male and female postgraduate alumni was also seen ($119,500 compared with $100,000, respectively). The median salary for non-Indigenous undergraduate alumni was $2,000 less than the median First Nations undergraduate alumni salary ($75,000 compared with $77,000, respectively) (Social Research Centre 2016, 2025).

First Nations undergraduate and postgraduate alumni in 2024 had an average satisfaction rating for their higher education course of 79% and 82%, respectively. This is a 3 percentage point decrease from 2016 for undergraduate alumni and a 1 percentage point decrease for postgraduate alumni (82% and 83%, respectively) (Social Research Centre 2016, 2025).

The 2014–15 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey (NATSISS) included questions about future intentions to study and found that 53% of First Nations people aged 15 and over reported that they intended to study in the future. Of those with future educational intentions, some reasons for wanting to study were: to improve knowledge or skills (56%); to improve qualifications (43%); to get a better job (32%), to get a job (31%); and interest (27%) (Table D2.06.18). 

Just under one-quarter (22%) of First Nations people aged 18 and over in the 2022–23 NATSIHS had wanted to study in the past 12 months, but for various reasons had not. Of those who wanted to study but did not, 1 in 4 (25%) cited financial reasons, and just under 1 in 5 (19%) cited having no time to study (Table D2.06.19).

Comparisons with non-Indigenous Australians

Based on the 2021 ABS Census of Population and Housing, the proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over who were currently studying was similar to the proportion of non-Indigenous Australians who were currently studying (10% and 11% respectively) (Table D2.06.1). 

However, levels of educational attainment are generally lower for First Nations people than non-Indigenous Australians. In 2021, Year 12 or equivalent was the highest level of school completed for 40% of First Nations adults, compared with 64% of non-Indigenous adults (Table D2.06.5).

Looking at non-school qualifications, in 2021, 48% of First Nations people aged 20–64 reported they either completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above or were studying for a non-school qualification at any level – compared with 71% for non-Indigenous Australians. This gap was due to lower rates of attainment at Bachelor Degree and above, with 10% of First Nations people aged 20–64 having a Bachelor Degree or above, compared with 35% of non-Indigenous adults. The proportion of people aged 20–64 with a non-school qualification at Certificate III to Advanced Diploma level was slightly higher for First Nations people than non-Indigenous Australians (34% and 31% respectively) (Table D2.06.10).

In 2024, First Nations people had a higher rate of VET attainment than non-Indigenous Australians, with 3.2% of First Nations people aged 15 and over completing a VET qualification, compared with 1.5% of non-Indigenous Australians (Table D2.06.17). 

Change over time

Over the 3 Censuses from 2011 to 2021, the proportion of First Nations people aged 18 and over who reported Year 12 or equivalent as their highest level of school completed increased from 29% in 2011, to 35% in 2016 and to 40% in 2021. The proportion also increased for non-Indigenous Australians (from 55% in 2011 to 64% in 2021), with minimal change in the rate difference between the two population groups in this period (decrease from 26 to 24 percentage points) and rate ratio (increase from 0.5 to 0.6) (Table D2.06.9).

There have also been increases in the rate of non-school qualifications among First Nations people. From 2011 to 2021, the proportion of First Nations people aged 20–64 with a Certificate III to Advanced Diploma increased from 24% to 34%, and the proportion with a Bachelor Degree or above increased from 6.6% to 9.8% (Table D2.06.13, Figure 2.06.7).

Figure 2.06.7: First Nations people aged 20–64 with a non–school qualification at Certificate III level or above and/or currently studying, by level of qualification, Australia, 2011, 2016 and 2021

Source: Table D2.06.13. AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Population and Housing (ABS 2022).

The proportion of First Nations people aged 20–64 who had completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above, and/or were currently studying for a non-school qualification at any level, increased from 35% in 2011, to 42% in 2016, and 48% in 2021. The proportion of non-Indigenous Australians who completed a non-school qualification at Certificate III or above, and/or were currently studying also increased (from 61% to 71%). The gap between First Nations people and non-Indigenous Australians decreased slightly from a rate difference of 26 percentage points in 2011 to 23 percentage points in 2021 (Table D2.06.13, Figure 2.06.8). 

Figure 2.06.8: Proportion of people aged 20–64 with a non–school qualification at Certificate III level or above and/or currently studying for a non-school qualification at any level, by Indigenous status, Australia, 2011, 2016 and 2021

Notes

1. Non-school qualification at Certificate III or above includes those who are currently studying.

2. Rate difference is calculated as the rate for First Nations people minus non-Indigenous Australians. The rate difference values are negative, reflecting a lower rate for First Nations people.

Source: Table D2.06.13. AIHW analysis of ABS Census of Population and Housing (ABS 2022).

From 2016 to 2024, the proportion of First Nations people aged 15 and over completing government funded VET qualifications decreased from 3.6% to 3.2% (Table D2.06.17, Figure 2.06.9). The proportion also decreased among non-Indigenous Australians, from 1.8% of those aged 15 and over in 2016, to 1.5% in 2024.

Figure 2.06.9: Proportion of people aged 15 and over who completed government-funded VET qualification/s in the year, by Indigenous status, 2016–2024

Source: Table D2.06.17. AIHW analysis of VOCSTATS (NCVER 2025).

The VET load pass rate is a way of calculating completion rates, and is the ratio of hours studied by students who passed their subject(s) to the total hours committed to by all students who passed, failed or withdrew from the corresponding subject(s) (Bedmarz 2012). In 2024, the overall VET load pass rate for First Nations students aged 15–64 was 79%, similar to the 78% VET load pass rate in 2016 (Table D2.06.30). For non-Indigenous students, there was no statistically significant change in VET load pass rate between 2016 and 2024, varying between 82% and 85% over this period.

Between 2015 and 2024, First Nations higher education students as a proportion of all domestic students rose from 1.5% to 2.2%. The number of First Nations students commencing in higher education has steadily increased from 6,168 students in 2015 to 9,290 students in 2024. During this same period, First Nations students commencing in higher education as a proportion of all domestic students rose from 1.7% to 2.4% (Table D2.06.24).

The rate at which First Nations people aged 20–64 completed higher education courses rose from 48 per 10,000 in 2016 to 77 per 10,000 in 2024, an increase of 55% (Table D2.06.25, Figure 2.06.10).

Figure 2.06.10: Higher education course completion rate (per 10,000), First Nations people aged 20–64, 2016 to 2024

Source: Table D2.06.25. AIHW analysis of Department of Education Higher Education Statistics Collection 2025.

Health and lifespan benefits

Adults with higher educational attainment are likely to have better health and lifespans compared to their peers. A study examining OECD countries from 1995 to 2015 found associations between higher levels of tertiary education and more favourable health indicators, including lower infant mortality, higher life expectancy and higher child vaccination rates. In addition, higher tertiary education levels and tertiary enrolment rates were associated with lower potential years of life lost, used as a measure of premature death. However, the authors note that the study examined associations and relationships between variables and did not establish causality (Raghupathi and Raghupathi 2020). Adult learning enhances skills, leading to employment opportunities, promotions, and wage increases, which benefit physical and mental health, especially for socially disadvantaged groups (Chandola et al. 2011; University College London Institute of Health Equity 2014). A 2024 AIHW report highlights the importance of education in improving health outcomes and reducing health disparities in Australia (AIHW 2024).

Post-School education participation

Strategies to improve post-school education participation should consider both academic performance and educational expectations of First Nations young people. Research shows that when First Nations and non-Indigenous students reach the same level of academic achievement by age 15, there is no significant difference in subsequent educational outcomes, such as completing Year 12 and participating in university or vocational education (Mahuteau et al. 2015). Differences in higher education participation often stem from academic achievement at younger ages (Biddle and Cameron 2012). Once First Nations students receive a tertiary admission rank, they are as likely as non-Indigenous students to attend university, though typically with lower admission scores. Further research into why First Nations students have lower test scores in school could help direct policy efforts to improving academic achievement throughout secondary education, leading to broader post-school opportunities (Biddle and Cameron 2012) – see measure 2.04 Literacy and numeracy and 2.05 Educational outcomes for young people). 

Pathways and support

Pathways from school to Vocational Education and Training (VET) and from VET to university education can be complex. While VET focuses on skill development, university emphasises critical thinking, making transition challenging. Universities need to support First Nations students to navigate and complete their education confidently (Frawley et al. 2017). This involves addressing aspirations and achievement early in schooling to build self-efficacy. Many Australian universities have programs to inspire First Nations school students and highlight higher education opportunities.

Enablers and barriers

Key enablers of higher education for Indigenous people globally include support units, peer connection, and resilience. Barriers include a lack of cultural safety, racism, inadequate wellbeing services, homesickness, financial stress, and conflict between education and family responsibilities (Durmush et al. 2024; PM&C 2019). Racism is a key barrier for First Nations students pursuing higher education in Australia, and can include verbal and behavioural racism, institutional discrimination and macro-level racism (AHRC 2024). Additional barriers include low Year 12 completion rates, lack of transition awareness, insufficient support from families and employers, a lack of career guidance and geographic challenges (Gore et al. 2017b). Many students from rural and remote areas must relocate, which brings the challenges of housing costs and isolation from their families and communities (Behrendt et al. 2012; Gore et al. 2017b). In some fields of study, the requirement to complete unpaid practical placements can also be a significant barrier to tertiary education (Grant-Smith et al. 2017; Morley et al. 2024).

Students with financial support in the form of covering tuition and/or living expenses were able to devote more time to their studies rather than working, and financial support was found to be a key factor enabling university completion (Pham et al. 2024). A review by the Department of Education suggested a collaborative approach to improve outcomes, including recruiting First Nations staff, incorporating First Nations knowledge within curriculums, and building stronger school-university relationships (Behrendt et al. 2012). 

First Nations women and girls

The Wiyi Yani U Thangani (Women’s Voices) Securing Our Rights, Securing Our Future Report (AHRC 2022) is the first national report in over 30 years to amplify the voices of 2,300 First Nations women and girls on issues that matter to them. Through 106 face-to-face engagements across 50 communities, the report explored their strengths, challenges, and aspirations. The Report identified the importance of education, training and employment for First Nations women and girls to fully participate in society. Barriers to accessing education, training and employment, include affordability, local availability, inadequate supports, and lack of cultural representation and inclusivity. School-based engagement and mentoring programs foster a culturally safe and inclusive environment, enhancing access to education and training opportunities.

Student aspiration and motivation

Factors influencing First Nations student aspiration and motivation include academic self-concept, cultural connectedness, relationship networks, educational culture, and regionality (Bowra et al. 2020). Additionally, alternative education pathways, such as Technical and Further Education (TAFE), are essential for disengaged students, offering a practical training pathway and perceived work opportunities (Briggs 2017; Gore et al. 2017a).

Evaluation

Strengthening evaluation in the First Nations higher education space requires First Nations leadership, increased funding, and cultural transformation. A report by the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education recommended developing a National Indigenous Higher Education Performance and Evaluation Strategy (Smith et al. 2018). A 2012 review highlighted the role of higher education in reducing First Nations disadvantage. It found that First Nations people are under-represented in higher education, contributing to social and economic disadvantages. The review recommended developing a monitoring and evaluation framework to assess progress (Behrendt et al. 2012). In addition, from 2021, the Australian Government guaranteed Commonwealth supported places for First Nations students from regional and remote areas. This initiative aims to increase the number of First Nations graduates and support professional services in their communities. Positive outcomes include increased university enrolment and graduation rates among First Nations students (Department of Education n.d.). Furthermore, CareerTrackers is a national non-profit organisation that creates internship opportunities for First Nations university students. The program supports students through paid internships, professional development, and leadership training. Notably, it has significantly improved graduation rates among its participants compared to the national average. Specifically, 89% of CareerTrackers participants graduate, compared to 47% of First Nations students nationally (CareerTrackers n.d.).

The Indigenous Girls' STEM Academy program is a $25 million, 10-year national investment that aims to support high-achieving First Nations women and girls who aspire to pursue education or careers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields (Jin 2021; NIAA n.d.; Office of the Chief Scientist 2020). As of June 2025, the $20 million Student Initiative under the Academy (which has a target of supporting 600 participants by 2028) has already supported 657 First Nations women across high school, tertiary study, and early STEM careers, with high retainment rates. With over 100 tailored STEM experiences delivered and 102 graduates now in STEM fields or further study, the program is building a strong pipeline of First Nations female leaders pursuing careers in STEM (DISR 2024a, 2024b).

Also, as of June 2025, the $5 million Teachers of STEM Initiative under the Academy – which has a target of supporting 99 new female First Nations teachers to complete their tertiary studies by 2028 – has supported 17 women with scholarships to complete their studies, with several more expected to complete by end of 2025. This initiative helps to address the shortage of First Nations teachers nationwide and has also supported 88 educators to incorporate Indigenous Knowledge into STEM curriculum through targeted and STEM specific professional development activities.

An evaluation found that the Away From Base (AFB) Mixed-Mode Program significantly improved tertiary education access and completion for First Nations students, particularly in remote areas. From 2013 to 2019, an average of over 6,000 students per year accessed the program. AFB students had substantially higher VET completion rates than national First Nations averages, with 45% completing compared to 19% for Certificate I courses, and 25% completing compared to 14% for Diplomas or higher. Notably, 71% of surveyed students said completing their studies would have been impossible or very difficult without AFB support (Social Compass 2021).

The Student Equity in Higher Education Evaluation Framework (SEHEEF) Final Report 2021 highlights various programs supporting First Nations students, such as mentoring, tutoring, and cultural services. These initiatives have led to increased enrolment, retention, and completion rates. Success stories within the report illustrate how these support services have helped First Nations students navigate university life and achieve academic success, demonstrating the effectiveness of targeted programs in promoting educational equity (Robinson et al. 2021).

Concerted efforts to increase Year 12 attainment are positively contributing to increased numbers of First Nations students enrolling in and completing higher education (DEWR 2025). However, significant numbers of First Nations young people aged 15–24 are currently not engaged in further education, training or employment (see measure 2.07 Employment). Research using longitudinal data is essential to better understand pathways from school to employment for First Nations young people. This data can help identify specific interventions that encourage school attendance and completion, thereby reducing dropout rates. 

The 25 Years of LSAY: Research from the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth report highlights the importance of such data in identifying effective support programs, culturally responsive teaching, and vocational education and training options that improve educational outcomes for First Nations youth (Forrest and Scoobie 2020).

Ensuring that young First Nations people are supported throughout their secondary schooling to make successful post-school transitions is critical to improving their employment prospects and, subsequently, their health and other outcomes. Recent evidence highlights that completing Year 12 is linked to better social and economic outcomes, including higher employment rates and improved health and wellbeing (AIHW 2025). Moreover, the gap between First Nations people and non-Indigenous Australians in higher education is linked to factors such as the cost of higher education, non-completion of schooling, low academic achievement, expectations, and motivations (Gale et al. 2010; Hunter 2010). Additionally, factors affecting educational choices, such as access to information, educational aspirations, and awareness of how to transition, play a significant role (Guenther et al. 2024). Therefore, these barriers, as well as those affecting retention and completion rates of First Nations students in higher education, should inform policies and initiatives aimed at increasing participation and attainment of First Nations adults in higher education.
 
First Nations people’s tertiary educational attainment remains lower than that of non-Indigenous Australians. Employment outcomes for First Nations people are closely linked to their education background, highlighting the importance of accessible and targeted education pathways. Higher level qualifications (Certificate III and above) in high-demand fields lead to better employment outcomes, whereas lower-level qualifications (Certificate I or Certificate II) do not necessarily result in employment in those fields. For example, First Nations people who studied information technology (IT) were less likely to work in IT than their non-Indigenous counterparts. This can be attributed to the lower level of educational attainment for First Nations people with an IT qualification (18% with a Bachelor Degree or above) compared to non-Indigenous Australians with IT qualifications (62% with a Bachelor Degree or above) (Jobs and Skills Australia 2023).

The tertiary education system needs to better engage with First Nations people from remote areas. Only 30% of First Nations young people were fully engaged with employment, training and education in Very remote areas in 2021 compared with 82% for non-Indigenous young people (Productivity Commission 2023). Consequently, First Nations young people in remote areas are at risk of continuing long-term unemployment and long-term welfare dependency.
 
To address this issue, the Australian Government is changing the way it delivers remote employment programs and services, replacing the Community Development Program (CDP) in 2 stages. Stage One is the Remote Jobs and Economic Development (RJED) Program, a $707 million investment to create 3,000 real jobs over 3 years with proper wages and decent conditions in remote Australia. Stage Two is the Remote Australia Employment Service (RAES), a $1.9 billion investment that provides job seekers the opportunity to gain skills and resources to take up job opportunities, including those created through the RJED program. 

In parallel, tertiary education has an important role in achieving the Closing the Gap targets and Priority Reforms. The National Agreement Targets 6 and 7 relate directly to further education outcomes for First Nations people, and both are not on track. Urgent action is needed to bring these targets back on track. The Commonwealth’s 2025 Closing the Gap Implementation Plan invests in education initiatives, including an extension of the GO Foundation’s scholarship program and an extension of the Aurora Education Foundation’s RISE: Redefining Indigenous Success in Education initiative. Additionally, the 2024–25 Budget also committed $12.5 million over 4 years to support the ongoing operations of the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Corporation, a First Nations education peak organisation. 

The Australian Government supports First Nations tertiary education through a suite of initiatives that recognise the strengths, aspirations, and diverse needs of First Nations learners. The Indigenous Student Success Program (ISSP) provides flexible funding to universities to deliver scholarships, academic support, mentoring, and culturally safe spaces. This enables institutions to tailor services that reflect the priorities of First Nations students, particularly those from regional and remote communities.

In addition to targeted support programs like the ISSP, broader structural reforms are also shaping the tertiary education landscape. The National Skills Agreement (NSA), endorsed by all governments, is reshaping the Vocational Education and Training (VET) system to be more responsive and inclusive. A key initiative under the NSA is the National Skills Taxonomy (NST), which supports clearer pathways between education and employment. This is particularly relevant for First Nations learners navigating transitions between VET and higher education, and for aligning qualifications with community and economic aspirations (Jobs and Skills Australia 2024a).

Programs such as the Away From Base Mixed-Mode Program and Indigenous Higher Education Units further support access and success for First Nations students by reducing barriers to participation and fostering culturally safe peer networks. These initiatives support students through mentoring, tutoring, and cultural services, which have contributed to improved enrolment, retention, and completion outcomes.

Evidence also highlights the importance of First Nations-led training delivery in achieving meaningful educational outcomes. The 2012 Review of Higher Education Access and Outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People recommended that all universities adopt strategies to improve access and success for First Nations students. While these strategies are now in place, there remains a need for more rigorous evaluation to understand what approaches are most effective (Behrendt et al. 2012). Research by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) further highlights that remote First Nations learners thrive when education is delivered by local trainers, on Country, and in language (Guenther et al. 2017). Expanding the role of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Community-Controlled Registered Training Organisations (ACCRTOs) and other First Nations-led providers is a key opportunity to strengthen culturally grounded, community-driven education pathways. 

The National Skills Agreement includes dedicated funding to support Closing the Gap targets, including investment in building the ACCRTOs sector. This commitment, alongside the establishment of a VET policy partnership under the Agreement, presents a key opportunity to strengthen culturally grounded, community-driven education pathways led by First Nations organisations.

In addition, the National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation (NACCHO) is training over 500 First Nations Health Workers to support the growth and sustainability of the Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services (ACCHS) workforce. Training is provided by ACCRTOs through the First Nations Health Worker Traineeship Program, funded by the Australian Government and delivered by NACCHO. The program supports up to 500 trainees to complete Certificate III or IV qualifications, with structured workplace support to build a qualified and sustainable First Nations health workforce (DoHDA 2025; NACCHO n.d.).

The Indigenous Skills and Employment Program (ISEP) uses a place-based approach to connect First Nations people to jobs, career advancement opportunities, and new training and job-ready activities. ISEP supports a wide range of participants across urban, regional and remote areas, including young people looking for pathways to training and employment, job seekers, and employees looking to advance in their careers. SEE First Nations (Skills for Education and Employment) is dedicated to whole-of-community skills training delivery to First Nations people. It offers eligible First Nations people the option to access training through both general and specific delivery models, ensuring culturally appropriate and community-focused education.

Furthermore, through the 2024–25 MYEFO, the Australian Government has invested $44.2 million to continue to support approximately 2,500 First Nations boarding students from remote areas to access and stay engaged to attend school and achieve their learning potential, by extending the Indigenous Boarding Provider grant program for another 2 years in 2025 and 2026. The Australian Government has also invested $18 million over 2 years to build new and upgrade existing boarding facilities in Central Australia. This is part of the Central Australia Boarding Response Fund, which is for one-off infrastructure grants that aim to provide more opportunities for First Nations young people to access quality education in a culturally supportive environment. Additionally, the 2025–26 Budget allocated funding of $77.8 million over 4 years to extend the Australian Apprenticeships Incentive System. This includes targeted measures for First Nations apprentices, such as financial support for travel expenses, for purchasing tools, and increased frequency of support payments. The Strategic Review of the Australian Apprenticeship Incentive System – Fact sheet for First Nations apprentices emphasises the need for culturally competent training environments and support systems to address challenges like cultural obligations and workplace racism, aiming to enhance the uptake and completion rates of apprenticeships among First Nations people (DEWR 2025).

Addressing the educational and employment challenges faced by First Nations people, particularly those in remote areas, requires a multifaceted approach. By investing in targeted programs and support services, the Australian Government aims to close the gap in education and employment outcomes, fostering a more equitable and prosperous future for First Nations communities.

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